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Machine learning fundamentals — supervised, unsupervised, RL

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  • Identify the key rules and §§ that apply to machine learning fundamentals — supervised, unsupervised, rl.
  • Apply the AI.Foundations.ML knowledge element in a typical exam scenario.
  • Recognize common distractors and partial-credit answers.

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AI.Foundations.ML

Machine learning fundamentals — supervised, unsupervised, RL

AI Era · ML Foundations Supervised, Unsupervised, Reinforcement Learning

**Supervised learning** learns a function f: X → Y from labeled examples. Classification (discrete Y) uses cross-entropy loss; regression (continuous Y) uses MSE/MAE. Canonical models: logistic regression (linear decision boundary on log-odds), SVMs (maximum-margin separators with kernel trick for nonlinearity), random forests (bagged trees, feature sampling), gradient boosting (XGBoost, LightGBM, CatBoost — still SOTA on many tabular problems).

**Unsupervised learning** finds structure without labels. K-means (hard clustering, minimizes within-cluster variance), Gaussian mixture models (soft clustering via EM), PCA (linear dimensionality reduction preserving variance), t-SNE/UMAP (nonlinear manifold visualization), autoencoders (compress-reconstruct), contrastive self-supervised (SimCLR, MoCo, CLIP, DINO).

**Reinforcement learning** learns a policy π(a|s) maximizing expected return E[Σ γ^t r_t]. Classical: Q-learning, SARSA, policy gradient (REINFORCE). Deep RL: DQN (Atari), PPO (robotics, RLHF), A3C. Exploration-exploitation via ε-greedy, UCB, Thompson sampling.

**Bias-variance trade-off:** expected loss = irreducible noise + bias² + variance. High-capacity models overfit (low bias, high variance); regularization trades some bias for lower variance. Techniques: L1/L2, dropout, data augmentation, early stopping, ensembling.

**Generalization theory:** PAC learning, Rademacher complexity, VC dimension — classical but loose. Modern observation: large overparameterized networks generalize despite zero training loss (double descent, Belkin et al. 2019). Implicit regularization from SGD is an active research area.

Bishop, Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning Belkin et al. (2019) Double Descent, PNAS

Check yourself

3 quick questions — no score kept, just formative feedback.

  1. Q1 · AI.Foundations.DL

    AdamW (Loshchilov & Hutter 2019) improves upon Adam by:

    Answer choices
  2. Q2 · AI.Foundations.Governance

    The NIST AI Risk Management Framework 1.0 defines four core functions. Which is correct?

    Answer choices
  3. Q3 · AI.Foundations.ML

    The bias-variance decomposition of expected squared error says:

    Answer choices

Tutor

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